The roots of despair in Akhavan’s poem
Repression and despair are psychological states that may emerge at specific stages or throughout the life and affect one’s thoughts. The root of hopelessness can be found in philosophical thoughts and disorders in the society. Disappointment in Akhavan’s poems (the Iranian contemporary poet) is frequent and more than that of other contemporary poems. It is proved here that repressions of the poet are mostly limited to social matters. Because of the deep insight into his environment, the poet finds himself in a world full of imperfections and shortages. This perception of the society creates a dark and despondent world for the poet. In the society, as seen by the poet, the thinkers have become voiceless and been pushed into seclusion. Moreover, falsehood, hypocrisy, and flattery have encircled the free people and the poet finds himself in a world under the shadow of poverty. Akhavan’s perspective gives him a sense of absurdity, which is clearly reflected in his works.

The present article discusses and criticizes chapter two of Bahadorkkhani Comprehensive Book on extramission. The basic question of the study is the extent to which the new book of the author is under influence of his old book of comprehensive extramission. The main hypothesis is that despite all scientific advances in new extramission, Bahadorkhani’s Comprehensive Book still relies on extramission theory of ancient Greece and his Islamic era and does not step beyond Euclidean mathematics. It is notableو based on the instances of geometric relationships and the lasted astronomical discoveries brought in Jonpouri’s bookو that Bahadorkhani probably was aware of the latest advances in new geometric extramission. Following this hypothesis led us to another one that states, extramission specifically and mathematics that cover arithmetic, astronomy, and extramission had a strong geometric aspect in the India of 19th century without deep philosophical aspects.

Surveys of the history of Islamic science highlight a specific approach in the works of some Islamic scholars like Al-Razi, Ibn Al-Haisam, Al-Biruni, and Al-Khazani, which has common features, although a few, with modern empiricism. These scholars lived during the golden age of Islamic civilization between the mid-3rd and mid-6th centuries A.H. (300 years). Their works are featured with criticizing works of the scholars of the past like Aristotle and they would not hesitated rejecting the ideas that were not consistent with their experiences. This scientific method of these scholars, which is different from the mainstream scientific works of the Islamic civilization, in present paper is called “empirical approach”. Empirical approach is different from empiricism and refers to following a specific point of view in scientific endeavors. Regardless of some doubts, the roots of this approach can be traced back to ancient Greece. The approach implies using personal observations and experiences (in contrast to following an integrated and continuous rational system), experimentation (in contrast to passive observation), and induction (in contrast to deduction) in academic works. Notable is that adopting this approach in scientific activities is not in conflict with following some of Aristotle’s paradigms or even believe in metaphysics. Empirical approach, given the definition and from the authors’ point of view, is a relatively neglected and unknown approach in the history of science of Islamic era. Consequently, the scientists who followed this approach in their works are not known with their ways of thinking and observing the universe. In addition to surveying historical approach in Islamic civilization and elaborating on the principles and methods, the author (from his point of view) tries to examine the works of Birouni, as representative of empirical approach scientists, and uncover the quality of empirical approach in his works and role of experience, reason, and faith in Birounit’s though framework.